APPROACHES TO TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

APPROACHES  TO  TEACHING  ENGLISH  AS  A SECOND LANGUAGE

 

'The limits of my language mean the limits of my world'

(Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1889-1951, Austrian philosopher)

 

Introduction

In a period of curriculum re-orientation in the arab World, it is timely to emphasize the broad reasons for foreign language (FL) learning and, in particular, teaching english as a second language (TESL). This article focuses on the global problems in english education as a second language (ESL). A brief overview is made of major educational value systems influencing modern FL programs; and alternatives to the "one true way" of TESL are offered through a selection of recent developments in language teaching methodology.  A sample of popular english language (EL) teaching approaches, in the local context, is presented as a basic teacher guide with options for supplementary activity planning. Finally, attention is given to effective classroom planning and educational outcomes. the guides presented (Tables 1-3) are interesting for teachers at different levels, and especially helpful for the new and inexperienced teacher.

 

Reasons for foreign language learning

Recent research into FL learning concludes that language skills are rated alongside literacy, numeracy and Information Technology (IT) skills. FL learning plays an important role in enabling children to grow beyond the ethnocentric limitations of their own culture, which encourages tolerance and empathy towards the linguistic and cultural diversity of the world around them, and indeed of their own society (Clark,1987). In addition, FL learning leads to a better understanding of one's native language, and raises awareness of the nature and function of language in everyday life (Von Papen & Le Bihan, 2000). It is to be emphasized that english is now the medium of international communication (Ref.world wide web).

Practical reasons for EL learning are for commercial and industrial interests, for professional advancement, for educational development and vocational training, and for travelling abroad. In certain countries where long - term government programs highlighting the importance of EL skills have not been applied, and second language learning at the school level has not been obligatory, there are seri ous social, economic and political consequences. Not only is the country culturally and socially impoverished, there are ominous risks when faced with polyglot competition from other countries, throughout the world at large (Von Papen & Le Bihan, 2000; Osborne, N. 2003).

In the arab world, English is frequently taught from primary or elementary level as a second language, in both the public and the private sectors. In Lebanon, English has been applied as the main medium for the teaching of humanities and sciences (in English schools), although efforts have been made to increase the influence of Arabic in recent years. Lebanese schoolchildren in private schools are exposed to international language programs based on the western models, while government (public) schools attempt to follow a more national textbook program.

 

Worldwide problems in TESL

Since the first international day for eradicating illiteracy (Education for All- UNESCO, Jomtein, Thailand, 1990), illiteracy in the Arab world continues to be a serious problem. In Lebanon, 87.4% of the population were recorded as being literate in 2003 (Arab Social Sciences Research: Social Watch).

Literacy concerns and trends in education are becoming increasingly important in TESL and teacher education (Roberts, 1994). There are common issues worldwide today regarding remedial standards of language students, both at university and middle school levels, in countries where English is taught as a second language. The source of these problems vary, according to the cultural, political and economic context. Textbooks are a major definition of curricula in many countries. However, according to some researchers, the curricula presented in textbooks and the scope and sequence of the material are often poorly designed, biased and factually incorrect, as well as deculturalizing (Al -Driss, 2003; Chowdhury, 1993; Boeteng, 1990). The importance of the computer as a tool for communication and language use, according to Pachler (2002), has been universally promoted. However, although computer programs with integrated technology are designed to teach and evaluate linguistic forms such as pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, or grammatical structures, no single computer application is ever likely to provide a panacea. Information and Communication Technologies (ICt) can only facilitate ESL learning. These are 'probably best located outside class time.' Access to ICt offers further advantage to the economically privileged, while limited access by the underprivileged contributes, with other social – economic factors, to exclusionary educational barriers and social inequalities, with often irreversible, political consequences (Tollefson, 1991).

While controversy rages in educational corridors over old and new curricular theories (Kohn, 2000), and administrators and planners heed the researchers or experts in the field, collaboration may be as political as it is ambiguous. Beane (1995) appropriately refers to 'ambiguity tolerance'. In an international context, anxieties of second language teachers, of all levels, frequently relate to confusion concerning the "right" method to use when teaching. This problem is exacerbated by the absence of teacher qualifications and experience, coordinated programs, training workshops, qualified visiting counselors, an appropriate course book guide, and evaluation guide. These concerns are echoed in a local context, Lebanon.

 

The Right Approach to TESL

Three principal value systems influence the contemporary educational process: Classical Humanism, Reconstructionism and Progressivism. It is worth noting that although these value systems are based on different philosophies and practice, they sometimes overlap. 'Recent changes to the foreign language curriculum can perhaps be best described as an attempt to move away from traditional (classical) practices towards something more egalitarian (Reconstructionist), on the one hand, and more learner- centered (Progressivist) on the other' (Clark, 1987). In the past, second language acquisition perspectives have been linguistic, psycho-linguistic, or cognitive, in nature. Although recent trends in ESL learning have focused on the communicative approach, according to Pachler (2002), traditional, behaviorist modes are still prevalent in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) (Lewis, 1993). On the other hand, a constructivist approach posits that (ESL) learning should be an active and collaborative process rooted in real life situations (Rüschoff and Ritter, 2001), where students require appropriate and authentic tasks, with a problem- solving and process-based orientation around authentic material (a template-based approach). Social interactionism gives attention to the socio-cultural environment of the learner, where language is an important tool for the transmission of culture and the development of thinking. This approach has implications for computer -mediated communication (CMC) applications and the status of the teacher.

In developed countries, which have traditionally produced popular models for international ESL programs, conflict resounds regarding an effective teaching methodology. Whereas educational trends in methodology may "come and go", they inevitably leave an impression. There is no "one true way", and the most effective aspects of a given methodology can be applied to any area of English planning within an established syllabus. Emphasis is finally placed on the school curriculum as a framework for educational planning and decisions, in relation to the local context. To complement the language course book, teachers (trained, language-proficient and IT literate), though not equipped as syllabus or materials designers, are 'informants, resourcers, guides and coordinators' (Early, cited in Quirk & Widdowson, 1985), of the culturally coherent English syllabus …and proficiency orientation.

Research completed during in-service English training courses for Lebanese public schoolteachers (CERD, 1994-1995), showed the popularity of certain methods of TESL: *

 

 

 

 

Table 1: POPULAR APPROACHES TO TESL Method Teaching techniques Potential Drawbacks   The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)   Comprehension questions; formal grammar learning; deductive application of rules; memorization; using words in sentences; composition; translation of a iterary passage. Reading / writing are primary skills. the native language is frequently used. Evaluation achieved through written tests. This method could be used to develop reading and vocabulary, grammar and writing skills. It could be applied advantageously at the upper levels for developing specialized vocabulary or competence in writing stylistics. Limited oral proficiency, limited personalization or contextualization in relation to students' experience, a lack of student interaction and little concern for teaching of cultural awareness on an everyday level. The concern for accuracy in the GTM, may be counterproductive in achieving language proficiency.   The Direct Method (DM)   Question and answer exercises; conversation practice; reading aloud; fill-in the blanks; dictation; map drawing; pre-writing and paragraph writing. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Reading and writing based on oral practice. Pronunciation practiced at early stages. Only English is used. Evaluation is achieved through oral and written skills. Self-correction applied where possible. Students are engaged in oral interaction that is contextualized, and to some extent personalized. The introduction of realia and pictures in language learning stimulates Students and encourages cultural awareness. The use of paraphrase in teaching vocabulary facilitates learning. The affective needs of the students are addressed through group activities and a teacher-student partnership. The danger of a lack of correction in the DM might lead to the phenomenon of fossilization and terminal proficiency profiles. (Fossilization can actually occur at any level where student errors are not corrected appropriately.) Further criticism focuses on insufficient provision being made for systematic practice of structure in a coherent sequence, and suggests occasional use of the native language and short translation exercises to avoid inaccuracy and vagueness. In contrast, another theory maintains that fluency emerges naturally over time, and accuracy will develop as the learner hears and understands more language input.

 

Table 2: POPULAR APPROACHES TO TESL Method Teaching Techniques Potential Drawbacks   The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)   Dialogue memorization; language drills; expansion drills; repetition drills; chain drills; substitution drills; transformation drills; question and answer drills; use of minimal pairs; grammar games. Only English is spoken. Evaluation is achieved through discrete point tests: objective / multiple choice. Skills are learned in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing. A focus on oral skills leads to good pronunciation and accurate speech when students are asked to give structured responses, with which they are familiar. Audio-lingual methods address the culture of the target language through dialogue and everyday situations. Today teachers use ALM to apply selected ELT techniques within an eclectic framework. ICt should be addressed. The ALM fails to address the problem of different learning styles and needs of students. Teachers and students find the absence of grammar rules frustrating. Overlearning and memorization through continuous repetition is considered monotonous, a physical strain on teachers and students, and minimizes the effects of meaning and contextualization. Unless ALM is incorporated into a set language program (course book), teachers usually do not have the training, the time or the language proficiency to introduce dialogues into their coursework.   The Communicative Approach (CA)   Use of authentic materials; language games; scrambled sentences; problem activities; role-play, etc. Only English is spoken. Evaluation is achieved through informal activities and formal communicative tests. Listening, speaking, reading and writing are used from the beginning. Students learn to communicate naturally in different social contexts and also how to negotiate meaning through english. they become responsible for their own learning, and work cooperatively through sharing ideas, which encourages individuality and emotional security with the language. ICT should be addressed. Teachers might not be sufficiently competent to teach natural communicative English in all social contexts. The program, following a functional syllabus, might be insufficiently structured. A variety of language forms are presented at one time, and a dilemma may be presented in emphasizing fluency over accuracy. In an unstructured syllabus, new language items might not be sufficiently recycled.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPROACHES TO TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

APPROACHES  TO  TEACHING  ENGLISH  AS  A SECOND LANGUAGE

 

'The limits of my language mean the limits of my world'

(Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1889-1951, Austrian philosopher)

 

Introduction

In a period of curriculum re-orientation in the arab World, it is timely to emphasize the broad reasons for foreign language (FL) learning and, in particular, teaching english as a second language (TESL). This article focuses on the global problems in english education as a second language (ESL). A brief overview is made of major educational value systems influencing modern FL programs; and alternatives to the "one true way" of TESL are offered through a selection of recent developments in language teaching methodology.  A sample of popular english language (EL) teaching approaches, in the local context, is presented as a basic teacher guide with options for supplementary activity planning. Finally, attention is given to effective classroom planning and educational outcomes. the guides presented (Tables 1-3) are interesting for teachers at different levels, and especially helpful for the new and inexperienced teacher.

 

Reasons for foreign language learning

Recent research into FL learning concludes that language skills are rated alongside literacy, numeracy and Information Technology (IT) skills. FL learning plays an important role in enabling children to grow beyond the ethnocentric limitations of their own culture, which encourages tolerance and empathy towards the linguistic and cultural diversity of the world around them, and indeed of their own society (Clark,1987). In addition, FL learning leads to a better understanding of one's native language, and raises awareness of the nature and function of language in everyday life (Von Papen & Le Bihan, 2000). It is to be emphasized that english is now the medium of international communication (Ref.world wide web).

Practical reasons for EL learning are for commercial and industrial interests, for professional advancement, for educational development and vocational training, and for travelling abroad. In certain countries where long - term government programs highlighting the importance of EL skills have not been applied, and second language learning at the school level has not been obligatory, there are seri ous social, economic and political consequences. Not only is the country culturally and socially impoverished, there are ominous risks when faced with polyglot competition from other countries, throughout the world at large (Von Papen & Le Bihan, 2000; Osborne, N. 2003).

In the arab world, English is frequently taught from primary or elementary level as a second language, in both the public and the private sectors. In Lebanon, English has been applied as the main medium for the teaching of humanities and sciences (in English schools), although efforts have been made to increase the influence of Arabic in recent years. Lebanese schoolchildren in private schools are exposed to international language programs based on the western models, while government (public) schools attempt to follow a more national textbook program.

 

Worldwide problems in TESL

Since the first international day for eradicating illiteracy (Education for All- UNESCO, Jomtein, Thailand, 1990), illiteracy in the Arab world continues to be a serious problem. In Lebanon, 87.4% of the population were recorded as being literate in 2003 (Arab Social Sciences Research: Social Watch).

Literacy concerns and trends in education are becoming increasingly important in TESL and teacher education (Roberts, 1994). There are common issues worldwide today regarding remedial standards of language students, both at university and middle school levels, in countries where English is taught as a second language. The source of these problems vary, according to the cultural, political and economic context. Textbooks are a major definition of curricula in many countries. However, according to some researchers, the curricula presented in textbooks and the scope and sequence of the material are often poorly designed, biased and factually incorrect, as well as deculturalizing (Al -Driss, 2003; Chowdhury, 1993; Boeteng, 1990). The importance of the computer as a tool for communication and language use, according to Pachler (2002), has been universally promoted. However, although computer programs with integrated technology are designed to teach and evaluate linguistic forms such as pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, or grammatical structures, no single computer application is ever likely to provide a panacea. Information and Communication Technologies (ICt) can only facilitate ESL learning. These are 'probably best located outside class time.' Access to ICt offers further advantage to the economically privileged, while limited access by the underprivileged contributes, with other social – economic factors, to exclusionary educational barriers and social inequalities, with often irreversible, political consequences (Tollefson, 1991).

While controversy rages in educational corridors over old and new curricular theories (Kohn, 2000), and administrators and planners heed the researchers or experts in the field, collaboration may be as political as it is ambiguous. Beane (1995) appropriately refers to 'ambiguity tolerance'. In an international context, anxieties of second language teachers, of all levels, frequently relate to confusion concerning the "right" method to use when teaching. This problem is exacerbated by the absence of teacher qualifications and experience, coordinated programs, training workshops, qualified visiting counselors, an appropriate course book guide, and evaluation guide. These concerns are echoed in a local context, Lebanon.

 

The Right Approach to TESL

Three principal value systems influence the contemporary educational process: Classical Humanism, Reconstructionism and Progressivism. It is worth noting that although these value systems are based on different philosophies and practice, they sometimes overlap. 'Recent changes to the foreign language curriculum can perhaps be best described as an attempt to move away from traditional (classical) practices towards something more egalitarian (Reconstructionist), on the one hand, and more learner- centered (Progressivist) on the other' (Clark, 1987). In the past, second language acquisition perspectives have been linguistic, psycho-linguistic, or cognitive, in nature. Although recent trends in ESL learning have focused on the communicative approach, according to Pachler (2002), traditional, behaviorist modes are still prevalent in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) (Lewis, 1993). On the other hand, a constructivist approach posits that (ESL) learning should be an active and collaborative process rooted in real life situations (Rüschoff and Ritter, 2001), where students require appropriate and authentic tasks, with a problem- solving and process-based orientation around authentic material (a template-based approach). Social interactionism gives attention to the socio-cultural environment of the learner, where language is an important tool for the transmission of culture and the development of thinking. This approach has implications for computer -mediated communication (CMC) applications and the status of the teacher.

In developed countries, which have traditionally produced popular models for international ESL programs, conflict resounds regarding an effective teaching methodology. Whereas educational trends in methodology may "come and go", they inevitably leave an impression. There is no "one true way", and the most effective aspects of a given methodology can be applied to any area of English planning within an established syllabus. Emphasis is finally placed on the school curriculum as a framework for educational planning and decisions, in relation to the local context. To complement the language course book, teachers (trained, language-proficient and IT literate), though not equipped as syllabus or materials designers, are 'informants, resourcers, guides and coordinators' (Early, cited in Quirk & Widdowson, 1985), of the culturally coherent English syllabus …and proficiency orientation.

Research completed during in-service English training courses for Lebanese public schoolteachers (CERD, 1994-1995), showed the popularity of certain methods of TESL: *

 

 

 

 

Table 1: POPULAR APPROACHES TO TESL Method Teaching techniques Potential Drawbacks   The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)   Comprehension questions; formal grammar learning; deductive application of rules; memorization; using words in sentences; composition; translation of a iterary passage. Reading / writing are primary skills. the native language is frequently used. Evaluation achieved through written tests. This method could be used to develop reading and vocabulary, grammar and writing skills. It could be applied advantageously at the upper levels for developing specialized vocabulary or competence in writing stylistics. Limited oral proficiency, limited personalization or contextualization in relation to students' experience, a lack of student interaction and little concern for teaching of cultural awareness on an everyday level. The concern for accuracy in the GTM, may be counterproductive in achieving language proficiency.   The Direct Method (DM)   Question and answer exercises; conversation practice; reading aloud; fill-in the blanks; dictation; map drawing; pre-writing and paragraph writing. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Reading and writing based on oral practice. Pronunciation practiced at early stages. Only English is used. Evaluation is achieved through oral and written skills. Self-correction applied where possible. Students are engaged in oral interaction that is contextualized, and to some extent personalized. The introduction of realia and pictures in language learning stimulates Students and encourages cultural awareness. The use of paraphrase in teaching vocabulary facilitates learning. The affective needs of the students are addressed through group activities and a teacher-student partnership. The danger of a lack of correction in the DM might lead to the phenomenon of fossilization and terminal proficiency profiles. (Fossilization can actually occur at any level where student errors are not corrected appropriately.) Further criticism focuses on insufficient provision being made for systematic practice of structure in a coherent sequence, and suggests occasional use of the native language and short translation exercises to avoid inaccuracy and vagueness. In contrast, another theory maintains that fluency emerges naturally over time, and accuracy will develop as the learner hears and understands more language input.

 

Table 2: POPULAR APPROACHES TO TESL Method Teaching Techniques Potential Drawbacks   The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)   Dialogue memorization; language drills; expansion drills; repetition drills; chain drills; substitution drills; transformation drills; question and answer drills; use of minimal pairs; grammar games. Only English is spoken. Evaluation is achieved through discrete point tests: objective / multiple choice. Skills are learned in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing. A focus on oral skills leads to good pronunciation and accurate speech when students are asked to give structured responses, with which they are familiar. Audio-lingual methods address the culture of the target language through dialogue and everyday situations. Today teachers use ALM to apply selected ELT techniques within an eclectic framework. ICt should be addressed. The ALM fails to address the problem of different learning styles and needs of students. Teachers and students find the absence of grammar rules frustrating. Overlearning and memorization through continuous repetition is considered monotonous, a physical strain on teachers and students, and minimizes the effects of meaning and contextualization. Unless ALM is incorporated into a set language program (course book), teachers usually do not have the training, the time or the language proficiency to introduce dialogues into their coursework.   The Communicative Approach (CA)   Use of authentic materials; language games; scrambled sentences; problem activities; role-play, etc. Only English is spoken. Evaluation is achieved through informal activities and formal communicative tests. Listening, speaking, reading and writing are used from the beginning. Students learn to communicate naturally in different social contexts and also how to negotiate meaning through english. they become responsible for their own learning, and work cooperatively through sharing ideas, which encourages individuality and emotional security with the language. ICT should be addressed. Teachers might not be sufficiently competent to teach natural communicative English in all social contexts. The program, following a functional syllabus, might be insufficiently structured. A variety of language forms are presented at one time, and a dilemma may be presented in emphasizing fluency over accuracy. In an unstructured syllabus, new language items might not be sufficiently recycled.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPROACHES TO TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

APPROACHES  TO  TEACHING  ENGLISH  AS  A SECOND LANGUAGE

 

'The limits of my language mean the limits of my world'

(Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1889-1951, Austrian philosopher)

 

Introduction

In a period of curriculum re-orientation in the arab World, it is timely to emphasize the broad reasons for foreign language (FL) learning and, in particular, teaching english as a second language (TESL). This article focuses on the global problems in english education as a second language (ESL). A brief overview is made of major educational value systems influencing modern FL programs; and alternatives to the "one true way" of TESL are offered through a selection of recent developments in language teaching methodology.  A sample of popular english language (EL) teaching approaches, in the local context, is presented as a basic teacher guide with options for supplementary activity planning. Finally, attention is given to effective classroom planning and educational outcomes. the guides presented (Tables 1-3) are interesting for teachers at different levels, and especially helpful for the new and inexperienced teacher.

 

Reasons for foreign language learning

Recent research into FL learning concludes that language skills are rated alongside literacy, numeracy and Information Technology (IT) skills. FL learning plays an important role in enabling children to grow beyond the ethnocentric limitations of their own culture, which encourages tolerance and empathy towards the linguistic and cultural diversity of the world around them, and indeed of their own society (Clark,1987). In addition, FL learning leads to a better understanding of one's native language, and raises awareness of the nature and function of language in everyday life (Von Papen & Le Bihan, 2000). It is to be emphasized that english is now the medium of international communication (Ref.world wide web).

Practical reasons for EL learning are for commercial and industrial interests, for professional advancement, for educational development and vocational training, and for travelling abroad. In certain countries where long - term government programs highlighting the importance of EL skills have not been applied, and second language learning at the school level has not been obligatory, there are seri ous social, economic and political consequences. Not only is the country culturally and socially impoverished, there are ominous risks when faced with polyglot competition from other countries, throughout the world at large (Von Papen & Le Bihan, 2000; Osborne, N. 2003).

In the arab world, English is frequently taught from primary or elementary level as a second language, in both the public and the private sectors. In Lebanon, English has been applied as the main medium for the teaching of humanities and sciences (in English schools), although efforts have been made to increase the influence of Arabic in recent years. Lebanese schoolchildren in private schools are exposed to international language programs based on the western models, while government (public) schools attempt to follow a more national textbook program.

 

Worldwide problems in TESL

Since the first international day for eradicating illiteracy (Education for All- UNESCO, Jomtein, Thailand, 1990), illiteracy in the Arab world continues to be a serious problem. In Lebanon, 87.4% of the population were recorded as being literate in 2003 (Arab Social Sciences Research: Social Watch).

Literacy concerns and trends in education are becoming increasingly important in TESL and teacher education (Roberts, 1994). There are common issues worldwide today regarding remedial standards of language students, both at university and middle school levels, in countries where English is taught as a second language. The source of these problems vary, according to the cultural, political and economic context. Textbooks are a major definition of curricula in many countries. However, according to some researchers, the curricula presented in textbooks and the scope and sequence of the material are often poorly designed, biased and factually incorrect, as well as deculturalizing (Al -Driss, 2003; Chowdhury, 1993; Boeteng, 1990). The importance of the computer as a tool for communication and language use, according to Pachler (2002), has been universally promoted. However, although computer programs with integrated technology are designed to teach and evaluate linguistic forms such as pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary, or grammatical structures, no single computer application is ever likely to provide a panacea. Information and Communication Technologies (ICt) can only facilitate ESL learning. These are 'probably best located outside class time.' Access to ICt offers further advantage to the economically privileged, while limited access by the underprivileged contributes, with other social – economic factors, to exclusionary educational barriers and social inequalities, with often irreversible, political consequences (Tollefson, 1991).

While controversy rages in educational corridors over old and new curricular theories (Kohn, 2000), and administrators and planners heed the researchers or experts in the field, collaboration may be as political as it is ambiguous. Beane (1995) appropriately refers to 'ambiguity tolerance'. In an international context, anxieties of second language teachers, of all levels, frequently relate to confusion concerning the "right" method to use when teaching. This problem is exacerbated by the absence of teacher qualifications and experience, coordinated programs, training workshops, qualified visiting counselors, an appropriate course book guide, and evaluation guide. These concerns are echoed in a local context, Lebanon.

 

The Right Approach to TESL

Three principal value systems influence the contemporary educational process: Classical Humanism, Reconstructionism and Progressivism. It is worth noting that although these value systems are based on different philosophies and practice, they sometimes overlap. 'Recent changes to the foreign language curriculum can perhaps be best described as an attempt to move away from traditional (classical) practices towards something more egalitarian (Reconstructionist), on the one hand, and more learner- centered (Progressivist) on the other' (Clark, 1987). In the past, second language acquisition perspectives have been linguistic, psycho-linguistic, or cognitive, in nature. Although recent trends in ESL learning have focused on the communicative approach, according to Pachler (2002), traditional, behaviorist modes are still prevalent in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) (Lewis, 1993). On the other hand, a constructivist approach posits that (ESL) learning should be an active and collaborative process rooted in real life situations (Rüschoff and Ritter, 2001), where students require appropriate and authentic tasks, with a problem- solving and process-based orientation around authentic material (a template-based approach). Social interactionism gives attention to the socio-cultural environment of the learner, where language is an important tool for the transmission of culture and the development of thinking. This approach has implications for computer -mediated communication (CMC) applications and the status of the teacher.

In developed countries, which have traditionally produced popular models for international ESL programs, conflict resounds regarding an effective teaching methodology. Whereas educational trends in methodology may "come and go", they inevitably leave an impression. There is no "one true way", and the most effective aspects of a given methodology can be applied to any area of English planning within an established syllabus. Emphasis is finally placed on the school curriculum as a framework for educational planning and decisions, in relation to the local context. To complement the language course book, teachers (trained, language-proficient and IT literate), though not equipped as syllabus or materials designers, are 'informants, resourcers, guides and coordinators' (Early, cited in Quirk & Widdowson, 1985), of the culturally coherent English syllabus …and proficiency orientation.

Research completed during in-service English training courses for Lebanese public schoolteachers (CERD, 1994-1995), showed the popularity of certain methods of TESL: *

 

 

 

 

Table 1: POPULAR APPROACHES TO TESL Method Teaching techniques Potential Drawbacks   The Grammar Translation Method (GTM)   Comprehension questions; formal grammar learning; deductive application of rules; memorization; using words in sentences; composition; translation of a iterary passage. Reading / writing are primary skills. the native language is frequently used. Evaluation achieved through written tests. This method could be used to develop reading and vocabulary, grammar and writing skills. It could be applied advantageously at the upper levels for developing specialized vocabulary or competence in writing stylistics. Limited oral proficiency, limited personalization or contextualization in relation to students' experience, a lack of student interaction and little concern for teaching of cultural awareness on an everyday level. The concern for accuracy in the GTM, may be counterproductive in achieving language proficiency.   The Direct Method (DM)   Question and answer exercises; conversation practice; reading aloud; fill-in the blanks; dictation; map drawing; pre-writing and paragraph writing. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Reading and writing based on oral practice. Pronunciation practiced at early stages. Only English is used. Evaluation is achieved through oral and written skills. Self-correction applied where possible. Students are engaged in oral interaction that is contextualized, and to some extent personalized. The introduction of realia and pictures in language learning stimulates Students and encourages cultural awareness. The use of paraphrase in teaching vocabulary facilitates learning. The affective needs of the students are addressed through group activities and a teacher-student partnership. The danger of a lack of correction in the DM might lead to the phenomenon of fossilization and terminal proficiency profiles. (Fossilization can actually occur at any level where student errors are not corrected appropriately.) Further criticism focuses on insufficient provision being made for systematic practice of structure in a coherent sequence, and suggests occasional use of the native language and short translation exercises to avoid inaccuracy and vagueness. In contrast, another theory maintains that fluency emerges naturally over time, and accuracy will develop as the learner hears and understands more language input.

 

Table 2: POPULAR APPROACHES TO TESL Method Teaching Techniques Potential Drawbacks   The Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)   Dialogue memorization; language drills; expansion drills; repetition drills; chain drills; substitution drills; transformation drills; question and answer drills; use of minimal pairs; grammar games. Only English is spoken. Evaluation is achieved through discrete point tests: objective / multiple choice. Skills are learned in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing. A focus on oral skills leads to good pronunciation and accurate speech when students are asked to give structured responses, with which they are familiar. Audio-lingual methods address the culture of the target language through dialogue and everyday situations. Today teachers use ALM to apply selected ELT techniques within an eclectic framework. ICt should be addressed. The ALM fails to address the problem of different learning styles and needs of students. Teachers and students find the absence of grammar rules frustrating. Overlearning and memorization through continuous repetition is considered monotonous, a physical strain on teachers and students, and minimizes the effects of meaning and contextualization. Unless ALM is incorporated into a set language program (course book), teachers usually do not have the training, the time or the language proficiency to introduce dialogues into their coursework.   The Communicative Approach (CA)   Use of authentic materials; language games; scrambled sentences; problem activities; role-play, etc. Only English is spoken. Evaluation is achieved through informal activities and formal communicative tests. Listening, speaking, reading and writing are used from the beginning. Students learn to communicate naturally in different social contexts and also how to negotiate meaning through english. they become responsible for their own learning, and work cooperatively through sharing ideas, which encourages individuality and emotional security with the language. ICT should be addressed. Teachers might not be sufficiently competent to teach natural communicative English in all social contexts. The program, following a functional syllabus, might be insufficiently structured. A variety of language forms are presented at one time, and a dilemma may be presented in emphasizing fluency over accuracy. In an unstructured syllabus, new language items might not be sufficiently recycled.