Globalization and Identities Effect of Globalization on Self

Abstract

The accelerating pace of globalization, the buzzword since 1990, is the cause of many socio-cultural complexities. Owing to globalization, literary texts became more vital to students communicative and critical awareness of the world around them; however, a resistance to literary works may occur when conflicting cultural codes exist. In fact, alienation and even self effacement may take place as a consequence of creating homogeneity and global solidarity. To postmodernists, meaning is no more inherent in the text but involve the reader in the process of interpretation. In other words, intertextuality and deconstruction are more affirmed since the text is a series of markings, and language is an open system equipped with an endless play of signifiers that undermines words authority. With postmodernism, the reader should not be a mere consumer but rather a free producer of text; therefore, the writerly text is preferable because it is open to a variety of interpretations. Nevertheless, the most frequent argument remains: Does globalization, that cast a blanket of uniformity over the world, suffocate the cultures of the marginalized, and threat everything that determines cultural identity? What is the role of education in the global era? Does reading about the Other efface or affirm the Self?

                                                              Key words: Globalization, education, postmodern narratives, identity, plurality

Globalization and education

The twenty-first century is typified by globalization which was promoted with the signing of the NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) to interrelate the world and promote a free flow of goods, services, information, and people across borders. The accelerated exchange has given rise to many
significant questions. Khalaf and Khalaf (2006), assert that globalization subsumes the entire world intellectual, economical, ideological and cultural compilations that cause socio-cultural complexities. Globalization is thought to be a major threat to the increasing immigrants worldwide because it  threatens their identities as well as that of the original residents. Likewise, education institutions are vulnerable to globalization risks since it affects their cultural roots and impact “societies at the ideological, political, and economic levels” (Stomquist and Monkman; 2000, p. 235). Tatto (2007) thinks that in an overly competitive market, governments are constantly trying “to shape their education systems to provide those skills needed in the growing global economy” (p. 231). He believes that reforms in education mean the creation of a new concept of the ideal teacher; however, designing and implementing new methods and curricula is not an easy matter. Still, this might be possible through accountability mechanisms that “secure compliance with globally determined standards of quality in teacher learning and practice” (p.232). To do so, administrators decided to face global intimidations by increasing education quality through monitoring, accountability measures, and performance standards. In some countries, resistance by teacher unions and local controls took place when an integrated curriculum was suggested for reform. Tatto (2007) emphasizes the need to work nationally through ministries of education, as well as globally through exchanging experiences and research. She states that:
Within the context of the global teacher reform, accountability is a term used to identify a number of actions (accreditation, standards development, curricular change, high stakes testing, credentials, career ladders, etc.) directed at identifying and enforcing ‘best practices’’ in teacher education, development and teaching (p. 235).
The complex demands in the global age require a thorough preparation of teachers on academic and pedagogical basis. These of course entail class management and effective leadership. To Tatto (2007), teaching is the result of a “set of technical/practical skills provided via short training programs” to build professional autonomy (Tatto 2007, p. 238). In other words, there is a call to modify the traditional understandings of teachers’ careers.
Leitgeb (2009) points out that governments are confronted with the burden of better quality and learners need to ‘construct belief, determine truth, share power, and become authentic’. To Carnoy (2000), “Globalization enters the education sector on an ideological horse, and its effects in education are largely a product of that financially driven, free-market ideology, not a clear conception for improving education” (p. 50). In order to enhance the global competence of learners, there is an urgent need to negotiate beliefs, values and identities.

With globalization, the question of multiculturalism remains at the heart of the educational reform. Freire (as cited in Torres-Guzman, M., E & Gomez J., 2009) believes that education could improve the human condition to counteract the effect of oppression. Torres et al assert that multiculturalism keeps affecting “most of the decisions that we face in dealing with the challenges of contemporary education” (p. 88). The last twenty years were distinguished by politics of culture that identify the importance of multiple identities in education. Multiculturalism has addressed the implications of class, race, and gender on the constitution of identities. It addressed the ability to tolerate people who are of different origin. Recent theories on multiculturalism in education aim at showing the complexity of multiple identities to promote the public good. The aim of these theories is to build accountability towards the formation of communities; however, they were unable “to embrace a theory of democracy that ameliorate, if not eliminate altogether, the social differences, inequality, and inequity pervasive in capitalist societies” (pp. 87-88). Eventually, to achieve the goals of diversity and multiculturalism, universities should hire qualified scholars, assist learners to explore knowledge without prejudice, and approach work with creativity and “a sense of utopian hope” (p.104).The most frequent argument among scholars remains: Does globalization, that casts a blanket of uniformity over the world, suffocate the cultures of the marginalized? Is it a real menace on everything that determines cultural identity? What is the role of education in eradicating the negative effects of globalization? Does knowledge about the Other affirm the Self and help mitigate the negative consequences of globalization?

A call for new identities
Maalouf, in Arab society and culture (2006), insists on the need of a new concept of identities that replaces the ‘tribal’ one (p.90). He explains how vengeance, and subsequent terrorism, starts by the people who were mocked because of skin color or shabby appearance. The feeling of humiliation and fears for existence in any society produces terrorism. When people feel the threat to their own religion, nation or group they fight for their survival, not as criminals of abominable crimes but as owners of a legitimate right or self defense. These ‘heroes’ have suffered from an arrogant colonist, racist or globalist who “turned the blind eye to the fate of their victims at least until rivers of blood have been shed” (p.89). Maalouf in his writings calls for a new concept of identity that accepts allegiances, rather being reduced to one single affiliation that encourages intolerance. This does not mean the denial of the self as much as providing care for the Other to avoid bloodthirsty madmen. To Maalouf, tolerance helps individuals transcend prejudice, which is the cause of many conflicts. Also, Maalouf in his essay ‘Damaged identities and violence’ asserts that people do not grow aware of their identities because it is not “a pre-given and static phenomenon” )p. 89(. In other words, what determines our affiliation to a person or a group was not in us at birth. It is only the result of a tribal notion that is still accepted especially in the Middle East. This region to Maalouf is caught in the intermingling elements of globalization, and is facing the threat of disintegration. Thus, reconciling with the culture of the Other is urgent to avoid the feeling of ‘lostness’, dislocation, alienation, instability and strangeness. Said (in Khalaf and Khalaf, 2006) describes his early experience in the USA as “a hopeless odd variation of a human being” (p.101). However, he finally brought himself to harmony with the Other through constructing a new identity via language, which does not only represent but also creates realities. This takes us back to Maalouf’s belief about the gradually built identity throughout life.

Developing awareness of the Other
Sometimes it is believed that globalization spreads an umbrella of uniformity that dissolves culture glues, dissociates people, and encourages isolation. With the increasingly growing pace of globalization, schools and universities worldwide have been under tremendous pressures to restructure their curricula, and management to adapt with the global competitiveness. In classroom, resistance to literary works, alienation and even self effacement may occur when homogeneity is imposed. This calls for more guidance on behalf of the teachers especially when students analyze a text from a critical literacy stance.
Banks (2009) claims that learners' thinking abilities grow when they relate to the world and feel comfortable with those of different background. To Wiggins & McTighe (2008), language activity encourages students to transfer knowledge by reading, recalling and responding.

Teacher leader in a global classroom
Weaver (2000) assures that teachers reflect a mainstream thought and tend to reinforce their social values which make education culturally determined. Weaver (2000) explains this issue by stating that facts never speak for themselves but are rather placed in a context that is dominated by societal values (p. 257). Freire argues that few people are exempt from oppression of one kind or another and calls for a critical pedagogy where teachers provide academic needs and make students ‘feel good as they choose’. To Freire (as cited in Billings, 1995), students need to develop ‘a broader sociopolitical consciousness’ that allows them to critique the ‘cultural norms, values, mores’ so that they are prepared to be active citizens (p.160). Freire explains that education needs a process of ‘conscientization’ that engages students critically as they develop different perspectives of social and historical phenomena. Likewise, Kozol (1991) assures that teachers must create a sense of common identity within students, and at the same time nurture a multiplicity of perspectives and unique identities. In other words, students must see the potential for themselves to face the paradox of building a unified community within their classroom and to strengthen their self-identities.

Literature in Language Class
Owing to globalization, Yayli, (2009) explains how narratives help students demonstrate their comprehension since new literacies present new ways of critical thinking. Students are expected to understand how societies are built through actions and words, and consider issues about identity and
how meaning is culturally built. In class, a teacher is neither a transmitter nor a facilitator but rather a mediator, intellectual initiator, and liberator of knowledge for learners who are questioning the world around them (p. 206).
Reading is an invitation to experience, to contemplate new views of the text and be a cocreator of text rather a passive consumer. To postmodernists, meaning is no more inherent in the text but involve the reader in the quest of interpretation, which to Culler (1981) means the dismissal of formalism:
It frees us from the notion that the poem is some kind of autonomous object which 'contains' its meaning as an inherent property. That notion has unfortunate consequences; it suggests that the reader, like a good empiricist, should approach the poem without any preconceptions so as to read only what is there in the text. The implication that the ideal reader is a tabula rasa on which the text inscribes itself not only makes nonsense of the whole process of literary education and conceals the conventions and norms which make possible the production of meaning, but also ensures the bankruptcy of literary theory, whose speculations on the properties of literary texts become ancillary
(p. 121).
Nowadays, educators read a lot about a reawakening of interest in the use of literature in language classes. The primary focus is on the interaction between the reader and the text, which does not possess fixed and final meaning (Finkelstein & McCleery, 2002). Literature is an avenue for literary texts that may help students put across their own experiences and interpretations to enhance their cognitive ability. To Iser (1974), there is a relationship between text and reader: ‘one must take into account not only the actual text but also, and in equal measure, the actions involved in responding to that text” (p. 274). Similarly, Barthes (1977) claims that a literary work does not even exist until it is read, or when ‘written’ by the reader. Barthes (1994) also assures that the author now is dead, and the text is a chain of intertextuality. Literature engages readers and elicits self-reflexive relationships between readers, writers, and text. Freire (1968) states that teaching should not be a banking of concepts, and the relation between the educator and student should be a democratic one to develop socialization. Bishop (2004) claims that literacy narratives play a vital pedagogical role through the connections they offer to students’ lives. They not only help validate their identities as writers but also provide a wider societal context, in which students might be able to place themselves meaningfully. Eventually, with enough awareness about the Self and the Other, the negative effect of globalization on the identity and culture of the marginalized might be wiped out.

References
• Barthes, R. (1977 [1971]) ‘From Work to Text’, (S. Health,Trans) , in Image Music Text. London: Fontana.… (1994). The death of the author. Falling into theory. )Ritcher D., H. Ed.( Boston: Bedford Books, 221-226.
• Billings, L., G. (1995). But that just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into practice, 3, 159-165. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/1476635
• Banks, J.A. (2009). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies. New York: Pearson Education.
• Bishop, W. (2004). On writing: A process reader. Boston: McGraw Hill.
• Carnoy, M. (2000). Sustaining the new economy in the information age: Reflections on our changing world. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Culler, J.(1981). The pursuit of signs. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Freire, P. (1968). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York : Sebury.
• Khalaf, S , Khalaf, R.S. (2006). Arab society and culture. (eds).London: SAQI.
• Kozol, , J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America’s schools. New York: HarperCollins.
• Leitgeb, L. (2009). Building theology, reinscribing subjectivity: Cultivating a liberal identity in unitarian universalism. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest dissertations and theses database.(UMI 3391104).
• Khalaf, S.R. (ed.).92010). Arab society and culture;An essential reader. London: Saqi.
• Torres- Guzman, M., E. & Gomez, J. (Eds.) (2009). Global perspectives on multiculturalism: Unity in diversity. New York: Teacher College Colombia University.
• Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2008). Put understanding first. Educational Leadership, 65(8), 36- 41.
• Stomquist, N., & Monkman, K. (2000) Defining globalization and assessing its implications on knowledge and education. In N. Stomquist, & K. Monkman (Eds.), Globalization and education (pp. 3–25). Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Tatto, M.,T. (2007). Education reform and the global regulation of teachers’ education, development and work: A cross-cultural analysis. International Journal of Educational Research, 45, 231–241. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedures.
• Weaver, G., R. (Ed.). (2000). Culture, communication and conflicts: Readings in intercultural relations (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson publishing.
• Yayli, D. (2009). New roles for literacy teachers in the age of multiliteracies: A sociocultural perspective. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1, 206–209. Retrieved from doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.037

Globalization and Identities Effect of Globalization on Self

Abstract

The accelerating pace of globalization, the buzzword since 1990, is the cause of many socio-cultural complexities. Owing to globalization, literary texts became more vital to students communicative and critical awareness of the world around them; however, a resistance to literary works may occur when conflicting cultural codes exist. In fact, alienation and even self effacement may take place as a consequence of creating homogeneity and global solidarity. To postmodernists, meaning is no more inherent in the text but involve the reader in the process of interpretation. In other words, intertextuality and deconstruction are more affirmed since the text is a series of markings, and language is an open system equipped with an endless play of signifiers that undermines words authority. With postmodernism, the reader should not be a mere consumer but rather a free producer of text; therefore, the writerly text is preferable because it is open to a variety of interpretations. Nevertheless, the most frequent argument remains: Does globalization, that cast a blanket of uniformity over the world, suffocate the cultures of the marginalized, and threat everything that determines cultural identity? What is the role of education in the global era? Does reading about the Other efface or affirm the Self?

                                                              Key words: Globalization, education, postmodern narratives, identity, plurality

Globalization and education

The twenty-first century is typified by globalization which was promoted with the signing of the NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) to interrelate the world and promote a free flow of goods, services, information, and people across borders. The accelerated exchange has given rise to many
significant questions. Khalaf and Khalaf (2006), assert that globalization subsumes the entire world intellectual, economical, ideological and cultural compilations that cause socio-cultural complexities. Globalization is thought to be a major threat to the increasing immigrants worldwide because it  threatens their identities as well as that of the original residents. Likewise, education institutions are vulnerable to globalization risks since it affects their cultural roots and impact “societies at the ideological, political, and economic levels” (Stomquist and Monkman; 2000, p. 235). Tatto (2007) thinks that in an overly competitive market, governments are constantly trying “to shape their education systems to provide those skills needed in the growing global economy” (p. 231). He believes that reforms in education mean the creation of a new concept of the ideal teacher; however, designing and implementing new methods and curricula is not an easy matter. Still, this might be possible through accountability mechanisms that “secure compliance with globally determined standards of quality in teacher learning and practice” (p.232). To do so, administrators decided to face global intimidations by increasing education quality through monitoring, accountability measures, and performance standards. In some countries, resistance by teacher unions and local controls took place when an integrated curriculum was suggested for reform. Tatto (2007) emphasizes the need to work nationally through ministries of education, as well as globally through exchanging experiences and research. She states that:
Within the context of the global teacher reform, accountability is a term used to identify a number of actions (accreditation, standards development, curricular change, high stakes testing, credentials, career ladders, etc.) directed at identifying and enforcing ‘best practices’’ in teacher education, development and teaching (p. 235).
The complex demands in the global age require a thorough preparation of teachers on academic and pedagogical basis. These of course entail class management and effective leadership. To Tatto (2007), teaching is the result of a “set of technical/practical skills provided via short training programs” to build professional autonomy (Tatto 2007, p. 238). In other words, there is a call to modify the traditional understandings of teachers’ careers.
Leitgeb (2009) points out that governments are confronted with the burden of better quality and learners need to ‘construct belief, determine truth, share power, and become authentic’. To Carnoy (2000), “Globalization enters the education sector on an ideological horse, and its effects in education are largely a product of that financially driven, free-market ideology, not a clear conception for improving education” (p. 50). In order to enhance the global competence of learners, there is an urgent need to negotiate beliefs, values and identities.

With globalization, the question of multiculturalism remains at the heart of the educational reform. Freire (as cited in Torres-Guzman, M., E & Gomez J., 2009) believes that education could improve the human condition to counteract the effect of oppression. Torres et al assert that multiculturalism keeps affecting “most of the decisions that we face in dealing with the challenges of contemporary education” (p. 88). The last twenty years were distinguished by politics of culture that identify the importance of multiple identities in education. Multiculturalism has addressed the implications of class, race, and gender on the constitution of identities. It addressed the ability to tolerate people who are of different origin. Recent theories on multiculturalism in education aim at showing the complexity of multiple identities to promote the public good. The aim of these theories is to build accountability towards the formation of communities; however, they were unable “to embrace a theory of democracy that ameliorate, if not eliminate altogether, the social differences, inequality, and inequity pervasive in capitalist societies” (pp. 87-88). Eventually, to achieve the goals of diversity and multiculturalism, universities should hire qualified scholars, assist learners to explore knowledge without prejudice, and approach work with creativity and “a sense of utopian hope” (p.104).The most frequent argument among scholars remains: Does globalization, that casts a blanket of uniformity over the world, suffocate the cultures of the marginalized? Is it a real menace on everything that determines cultural identity? What is the role of education in eradicating the negative effects of globalization? Does knowledge about the Other affirm the Self and help mitigate the negative consequences of globalization?

A call for new identities
Maalouf, in Arab society and culture (2006), insists on the need of a new concept of identities that replaces the ‘tribal’ one (p.90). He explains how vengeance, and subsequent terrorism, starts by the people who were mocked because of skin color or shabby appearance. The feeling of humiliation and fears for existence in any society produces terrorism. When people feel the threat to their own religion, nation or group they fight for their survival, not as criminals of abominable crimes but as owners of a legitimate right or self defense. These ‘heroes’ have suffered from an arrogant colonist, racist or globalist who “turned the blind eye to the fate of their victims at least until rivers of blood have been shed” (p.89). Maalouf in his writings calls for a new concept of identity that accepts allegiances, rather being reduced to one single affiliation that encourages intolerance. This does not mean the denial of the self as much as providing care for the Other to avoid bloodthirsty madmen. To Maalouf, tolerance helps individuals transcend prejudice, which is the cause of many conflicts. Also, Maalouf in his essay ‘Damaged identities and violence’ asserts that people do not grow aware of their identities because it is not “a pre-given and static phenomenon” )p. 89(. In other words, what determines our affiliation to a person or a group was not in us at birth. It is only the result of a tribal notion that is still accepted especially in the Middle East. This region to Maalouf is caught in the intermingling elements of globalization, and is facing the threat of disintegration. Thus, reconciling with the culture of the Other is urgent to avoid the feeling of ‘lostness’, dislocation, alienation, instability and strangeness. Said (in Khalaf and Khalaf, 2006) describes his early experience in the USA as “a hopeless odd variation of a human being” (p.101). However, he finally brought himself to harmony with the Other through constructing a new identity via language, which does not only represent but also creates realities. This takes us back to Maalouf’s belief about the gradually built identity throughout life.

Developing awareness of the Other
Sometimes it is believed that globalization spreads an umbrella of uniformity that dissolves culture glues, dissociates people, and encourages isolation. With the increasingly growing pace of globalization, schools and universities worldwide have been under tremendous pressures to restructure their curricula, and management to adapt with the global competitiveness. In classroom, resistance to literary works, alienation and even self effacement may occur when homogeneity is imposed. This calls for more guidance on behalf of the teachers especially when students analyze a text from a critical literacy stance.
Banks (2009) claims that learners' thinking abilities grow when they relate to the world and feel comfortable with those of different background. To Wiggins & McTighe (2008), language activity encourages students to transfer knowledge by reading, recalling and responding.

Teacher leader in a global classroom
Weaver (2000) assures that teachers reflect a mainstream thought and tend to reinforce their social values which make education culturally determined. Weaver (2000) explains this issue by stating that facts never speak for themselves but are rather placed in a context that is dominated by societal values (p. 257). Freire argues that few people are exempt from oppression of one kind or another and calls for a critical pedagogy where teachers provide academic needs and make students ‘feel good as they choose’. To Freire (as cited in Billings, 1995), students need to develop ‘a broader sociopolitical consciousness’ that allows them to critique the ‘cultural norms, values, mores’ so that they are prepared to be active citizens (p.160). Freire explains that education needs a process of ‘conscientization’ that engages students critically as they develop different perspectives of social and historical phenomena. Likewise, Kozol (1991) assures that teachers must create a sense of common identity within students, and at the same time nurture a multiplicity of perspectives and unique identities. In other words, students must see the potential for themselves to face the paradox of building a unified community within their classroom and to strengthen their self-identities.

Literature in Language Class
Owing to globalization, Yayli, (2009) explains how narratives help students demonstrate their comprehension since new literacies present new ways of critical thinking. Students are expected to understand how societies are built through actions and words, and consider issues about identity and
how meaning is culturally built. In class, a teacher is neither a transmitter nor a facilitator but rather a mediator, intellectual initiator, and liberator of knowledge for learners who are questioning the world around them (p. 206).
Reading is an invitation to experience, to contemplate new views of the text and be a cocreator of text rather a passive consumer. To postmodernists, meaning is no more inherent in the text but involve the reader in the quest of interpretation, which to Culler (1981) means the dismissal of formalism:
It frees us from the notion that the poem is some kind of autonomous object which 'contains' its meaning as an inherent property. That notion has unfortunate consequences; it suggests that the reader, like a good empiricist, should approach the poem without any preconceptions so as to read only what is there in the text. The implication that the ideal reader is a tabula rasa on which the text inscribes itself not only makes nonsense of the whole process of literary education and conceals the conventions and norms which make possible the production of meaning, but also ensures the bankruptcy of literary theory, whose speculations on the properties of literary texts become ancillary
(p. 121).
Nowadays, educators read a lot about a reawakening of interest in the use of literature in language classes. The primary focus is on the interaction between the reader and the text, which does not possess fixed and final meaning (Finkelstein & McCleery, 2002). Literature is an avenue for literary texts that may help students put across their own experiences and interpretations to enhance their cognitive ability. To Iser (1974), there is a relationship between text and reader: ‘one must take into account not only the actual text but also, and in equal measure, the actions involved in responding to that text” (p. 274). Similarly, Barthes (1977) claims that a literary work does not even exist until it is read, or when ‘written’ by the reader. Barthes (1994) also assures that the author now is dead, and the text is a chain of intertextuality. Literature engages readers and elicits self-reflexive relationships between readers, writers, and text. Freire (1968) states that teaching should not be a banking of concepts, and the relation between the educator and student should be a democratic one to develop socialization. Bishop (2004) claims that literacy narratives play a vital pedagogical role through the connections they offer to students’ lives. They not only help validate their identities as writers but also provide a wider societal context, in which students might be able to place themselves meaningfully. Eventually, with enough awareness about the Self and the Other, the negative effect of globalization on the identity and culture of the marginalized might be wiped out.

References
• Barthes, R. (1977 [1971]) ‘From Work to Text’, (S. Health,Trans) , in Image Music Text. London: Fontana.… (1994). The death of the author. Falling into theory. )Ritcher D., H. Ed.( Boston: Bedford Books, 221-226.
• Billings, L., G. (1995). But that just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into practice, 3, 159-165. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/1476635
• Banks, J.A. (2009). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies. New York: Pearson Education.
• Bishop, W. (2004). On writing: A process reader. Boston: McGraw Hill.
• Carnoy, M. (2000). Sustaining the new economy in the information age: Reflections on our changing world. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Culler, J.(1981). The pursuit of signs. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Freire, P. (1968). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York : Sebury.
• Khalaf, S , Khalaf, R.S. (2006). Arab society and culture. (eds).London: SAQI.
• Kozol, , J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America’s schools. New York: HarperCollins.
• Leitgeb, L. (2009). Building theology, reinscribing subjectivity: Cultivating a liberal identity in unitarian universalism. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest dissertations and theses database.(UMI 3391104).
• Khalaf, S.R. (ed.).92010). Arab society and culture;An essential reader. London: Saqi.
• Torres- Guzman, M., E. & Gomez, J. (Eds.) (2009). Global perspectives on multiculturalism: Unity in diversity. New York: Teacher College Colombia University.
• Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2008). Put understanding first. Educational Leadership, 65(8), 36- 41.
• Stomquist, N., & Monkman, K. (2000) Defining globalization and assessing its implications on knowledge and education. In N. Stomquist, & K. Monkman (Eds.), Globalization and education (pp. 3–25). Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Tatto, M.,T. (2007). Education reform and the global regulation of teachers’ education, development and work: A cross-cultural analysis. International Journal of Educational Research, 45, 231–241. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedures.
• Weaver, G., R. (Ed.). (2000). Culture, communication and conflicts: Readings in intercultural relations (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson publishing.
• Yayli, D. (2009). New roles for literacy teachers in the age of multiliteracies: A sociocultural perspective. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1, 206–209. Retrieved from doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.037

Globalization and Identities Effect of Globalization on Self

Abstract

The accelerating pace of globalization, the buzzword since 1990, is the cause of many socio-cultural complexities. Owing to globalization, literary texts became more vital to students communicative and critical awareness of the world around them; however, a resistance to literary works may occur when conflicting cultural codes exist. In fact, alienation and even self effacement may take place as a consequence of creating homogeneity and global solidarity. To postmodernists, meaning is no more inherent in the text but involve the reader in the process of interpretation. In other words, intertextuality and deconstruction are more affirmed since the text is a series of markings, and language is an open system equipped with an endless play of signifiers that undermines words authority. With postmodernism, the reader should not be a mere consumer but rather a free producer of text; therefore, the writerly text is preferable because it is open to a variety of interpretations. Nevertheless, the most frequent argument remains: Does globalization, that cast a blanket of uniformity over the world, suffocate the cultures of the marginalized, and threat everything that determines cultural identity? What is the role of education in the global era? Does reading about the Other efface or affirm the Self?

                                                              Key words: Globalization, education, postmodern narratives, identity, plurality

Globalization and education

The twenty-first century is typified by globalization which was promoted with the signing of the NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) to interrelate the world and promote a free flow of goods, services, information, and people across borders. The accelerated exchange has given rise to many
significant questions. Khalaf and Khalaf (2006), assert that globalization subsumes the entire world intellectual, economical, ideological and cultural compilations that cause socio-cultural complexities. Globalization is thought to be a major threat to the increasing immigrants worldwide because it  threatens their identities as well as that of the original residents. Likewise, education institutions are vulnerable to globalization risks since it affects their cultural roots and impact “societies at the ideological, political, and economic levels” (Stomquist and Monkman; 2000, p. 235). Tatto (2007) thinks that in an overly competitive market, governments are constantly trying “to shape their education systems to provide those skills needed in the growing global economy” (p. 231). He believes that reforms in education mean the creation of a new concept of the ideal teacher; however, designing and implementing new methods and curricula is not an easy matter. Still, this might be possible through accountability mechanisms that “secure compliance with globally determined standards of quality in teacher learning and practice” (p.232). To do so, administrators decided to face global intimidations by increasing education quality through monitoring, accountability measures, and performance standards. In some countries, resistance by teacher unions and local controls took place when an integrated curriculum was suggested for reform. Tatto (2007) emphasizes the need to work nationally through ministries of education, as well as globally through exchanging experiences and research. She states that:
Within the context of the global teacher reform, accountability is a term used to identify a number of actions (accreditation, standards development, curricular change, high stakes testing, credentials, career ladders, etc.) directed at identifying and enforcing ‘best practices’’ in teacher education, development and teaching (p. 235).
The complex demands in the global age require a thorough preparation of teachers on academic and pedagogical basis. These of course entail class management and effective leadership. To Tatto (2007), teaching is the result of a “set of technical/practical skills provided via short training programs” to build professional autonomy (Tatto 2007, p. 238). In other words, there is a call to modify the traditional understandings of teachers’ careers.
Leitgeb (2009) points out that governments are confronted with the burden of better quality and learners need to ‘construct belief, determine truth, share power, and become authentic’. To Carnoy (2000), “Globalization enters the education sector on an ideological horse, and its effects in education are largely a product of that financially driven, free-market ideology, not a clear conception for improving education” (p. 50). In order to enhance the global competence of learners, there is an urgent need to negotiate beliefs, values and identities.

With globalization, the question of multiculturalism remains at the heart of the educational reform. Freire (as cited in Torres-Guzman, M., E & Gomez J., 2009) believes that education could improve the human condition to counteract the effect of oppression. Torres et al assert that multiculturalism keeps affecting “most of the decisions that we face in dealing with the challenges of contemporary education” (p. 88). The last twenty years were distinguished by politics of culture that identify the importance of multiple identities in education. Multiculturalism has addressed the implications of class, race, and gender on the constitution of identities. It addressed the ability to tolerate people who are of different origin. Recent theories on multiculturalism in education aim at showing the complexity of multiple identities to promote the public good. The aim of these theories is to build accountability towards the formation of communities; however, they were unable “to embrace a theory of democracy that ameliorate, if not eliminate altogether, the social differences, inequality, and inequity pervasive in capitalist societies” (pp. 87-88). Eventually, to achieve the goals of diversity and multiculturalism, universities should hire qualified scholars, assist learners to explore knowledge without prejudice, and approach work with creativity and “a sense of utopian hope” (p.104).The most frequent argument among scholars remains: Does globalization, that casts a blanket of uniformity over the world, suffocate the cultures of the marginalized? Is it a real menace on everything that determines cultural identity? What is the role of education in eradicating the negative effects of globalization? Does knowledge about the Other affirm the Self and help mitigate the negative consequences of globalization?

A call for new identities
Maalouf, in Arab society and culture (2006), insists on the need of a new concept of identities that replaces the ‘tribal’ one (p.90). He explains how vengeance, and subsequent terrorism, starts by the people who were mocked because of skin color or shabby appearance. The feeling of humiliation and fears for existence in any society produces terrorism. When people feel the threat to their own religion, nation or group they fight for their survival, not as criminals of abominable crimes but as owners of a legitimate right or self defense. These ‘heroes’ have suffered from an arrogant colonist, racist or globalist who “turned the blind eye to the fate of their victims at least until rivers of blood have been shed” (p.89). Maalouf in his writings calls for a new concept of identity that accepts allegiances, rather being reduced to one single affiliation that encourages intolerance. This does not mean the denial of the self as much as providing care for the Other to avoid bloodthirsty madmen. To Maalouf, tolerance helps individuals transcend prejudice, which is the cause of many conflicts. Also, Maalouf in his essay ‘Damaged identities and violence’ asserts that people do not grow aware of their identities because it is not “a pre-given and static phenomenon” )p. 89(. In other words, what determines our affiliation to a person or a group was not in us at birth. It is only the result of a tribal notion that is still accepted especially in the Middle East. This region to Maalouf is caught in the intermingling elements of globalization, and is facing the threat of disintegration. Thus, reconciling with the culture of the Other is urgent to avoid the feeling of ‘lostness’, dislocation, alienation, instability and strangeness. Said (in Khalaf and Khalaf, 2006) describes his early experience in the USA as “a hopeless odd variation of a human being” (p.101). However, he finally brought himself to harmony with the Other through constructing a new identity via language, which does not only represent but also creates realities. This takes us back to Maalouf’s belief about the gradually built identity throughout life.

Developing awareness of the Other
Sometimes it is believed that globalization spreads an umbrella of uniformity that dissolves culture glues, dissociates people, and encourages isolation. With the increasingly growing pace of globalization, schools and universities worldwide have been under tremendous pressures to restructure their curricula, and management to adapt with the global competitiveness. In classroom, resistance to literary works, alienation and even self effacement may occur when homogeneity is imposed. This calls for more guidance on behalf of the teachers especially when students analyze a text from a critical literacy stance.
Banks (2009) claims that learners' thinking abilities grow when they relate to the world and feel comfortable with those of different background. To Wiggins & McTighe (2008), language activity encourages students to transfer knowledge by reading, recalling and responding.

Teacher leader in a global classroom
Weaver (2000) assures that teachers reflect a mainstream thought and tend to reinforce their social values which make education culturally determined. Weaver (2000) explains this issue by stating that facts never speak for themselves but are rather placed in a context that is dominated by societal values (p. 257). Freire argues that few people are exempt from oppression of one kind or another and calls for a critical pedagogy where teachers provide academic needs and make students ‘feel good as they choose’. To Freire (as cited in Billings, 1995), students need to develop ‘a broader sociopolitical consciousness’ that allows them to critique the ‘cultural norms, values, mores’ so that they are prepared to be active citizens (p.160). Freire explains that education needs a process of ‘conscientization’ that engages students critically as they develop different perspectives of social and historical phenomena. Likewise, Kozol (1991) assures that teachers must create a sense of common identity within students, and at the same time nurture a multiplicity of perspectives and unique identities. In other words, students must see the potential for themselves to face the paradox of building a unified community within their classroom and to strengthen their self-identities.

Literature in Language Class
Owing to globalization, Yayli, (2009) explains how narratives help students demonstrate their comprehension since new literacies present new ways of critical thinking. Students are expected to understand how societies are built through actions and words, and consider issues about identity and
how meaning is culturally built. In class, a teacher is neither a transmitter nor a facilitator but rather a mediator, intellectual initiator, and liberator of knowledge for learners who are questioning the world around them (p. 206).
Reading is an invitation to experience, to contemplate new views of the text and be a cocreator of text rather a passive consumer. To postmodernists, meaning is no more inherent in the text but involve the reader in the quest of interpretation, which to Culler (1981) means the dismissal of formalism:
It frees us from the notion that the poem is some kind of autonomous object which 'contains' its meaning as an inherent property. That notion has unfortunate consequences; it suggests that the reader, like a good empiricist, should approach the poem without any preconceptions so as to read only what is there in the text. The implication that the ideal reader is a tabula rasa on which the text inscribes itself not only makes nonsense of the whole process of literary education and conceals the conventions and norms which make possible the production of meaning, but also ensures the bankruptcy of literary theory, whose speculations on the properties of literary texts become ancillary
(p. 121).
Nowadays, educators read a lot about a reawakening of interest in the use of literature in language classes. The primary focus is on the interaction between the reader and the text, which does not possess fixed and final meaning (Finkelstein & McCleery, 2002). Literature is an avenue for literary texts that may help students put across their own experiences and interpretations to enhance their cognitive ability. To Iser (1974), there is a relationship between text and reader: ‘one must take into account not only the actual text but also, and in equal measure, the actions involved in responding to that text” (p. 274). Similarly, Barthes (1977) claims that a literary work does not even exist until it is read, or when ‘written’ by the reader. Barthes (1994) also assures that the author now is dead, and the text is a chain of intertextuality. Literature engages readers and elicits self-reflexive relationships between readers, writers, and text. Freire (1968) states that teaching should not be a banking of concepts, and the relation between the educator and student should be a democratic one to develop socialization. Bishop (2004) claims that literacy narratives play a vital pedagogical role through the connections they offer to students’ lives. They not only help validate their identities as writers but also provide a wider societal context, in which students might be able to place themselves meaningfully. Eventually, with enough awareness about the Self and the Other, the negative effect of globalization on the identity and culture of the marginalized might be wiped out.

References
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• Billings, L., G. (1995). But that just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into practice, 3, 159-165. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/1476635
• Banks, J.A. (2009). Teaching strategies for ethnic studies. New York: Pearson Education.
• Bishop, W. (2004). On writing: A process reader. Boston: McGraw Hill.
• Carnoy, M. (2000). Sustaining the new economy in the information age: Reflections on our changing world. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Culler, J.(1981). The pursuit of signs. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
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• Leitgeb, L. (2009). Building theology, reinscribing subjectivity: Cultivating a liberal identity in unitarian universalism. (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest dissertations and theses database.(UMI 3391104).
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• Torres- Guzman, M., E. & Gomez, J. (Eds.) (2009). Global perspectives on multiculturalism: Unity in diversity. New York: Teacher College Colombia University.
• Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2008). Put understanding first. Educational Leadership, 65(8), 36- 41.
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• Tatto, M.,T. (2007). Education reform and the global regulation of teachers’ education, development and work: A cross-cultural analysis. International Journal of Educational Research, 45, 231–241. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedures.
• Weaver, G., R. (Ed.). (2000). Culture, communication and conflicts: Readings in intercultural relations (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson publishing.
• Yayli, D. (2009). New roles for literacy teachers in the age of multiliteracies: A sociocultural perspective. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 1, 206–209. Retrieved from doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.037